Reclamation: GP Area Offices

The Santee Indian Reservation (Reservation) lies in the north-central part of Knox County in northeastern Nebraska (figure S-1). The Reservation border is marked by Lewis and Clark Lake and the Missouri River to the north and boundary lines to the east, west, and south. The resident population is centered in the Village of Santee (Village) in the northernmost portion of the Reservation. The nearest off-Reservation towns are Niobrara, Nebraska, and Yankton, South Dakota, about 12 miles southwest and 30 miles northeast of the Village, respectively.

Employment on the Reservation is concentrated in the agricultural, service, and administrative support sectors. Most of the jobs in these sectors are relatively low paying. Some revenue is by tourism, outdoor recreation, and casino gambling. Unemployment is much higher and income much lower on the Reservation than for the rest of Know County and for all of Nebraska. Future economic growth is anticipated for agricultural and service industries as well as recreation and community based enterprises. Potential future development includes a small strip mall, an RV park, casino expansion, a hotel, and possibly a golf course. A light industry establishment is also desired on the Reservation. The bridge crossing the Missouri River just west of the Reservation provides a good transportation link to Yankton, South Dakota which will help support future growth in the area.

Despite relatively high unemployment and low incomes experienced on the Reservation, long-term population growth is anticipated because of the desire of the Santee people to remain on the Reservation, potential in-migration of enrolled tribal members not currently living on the Reservation, and the relatively young population of the Reservation. An additional factor is the potential for future economic development on the Reservation. As a result, the Reservation population is projected to grow at an average annual rate of 1.84 percent through the year 2050 assuming a net Indian migration rate of 1 percent annually. The Village of Santee is projected to grow at a 1.3 percent annual rate and nearby Center is projected to grow at a 1.8 percent annual rate. Niobrara is projected to lose population over the 50 year period, at a rate of about 0.35 percent annually.

Currently, Reservation water supplies are drawn almost entirely from ground-water sources. Major aquifers being used include Quaternary alluvial materials adjacent to major stream channels (or associated with buried stream channels), the Dakota Formation, and Quaternary deposits in the southeast sector of the Reservation.

The Quaternary alluvial aquifers consist of unconsolidated sand and gravel deposits interbedded with silt and clay. Well yields from these deposits can vary significantly (from 50 to 750 gallons per minute). Depending on recharge from adjacent formations and overlying streams, water quality can vary considerably. On the basis of limited data, however, the quality of water from the Quaternary alluvial aquifers is more suitable for most residential and commercial purposes than water from the Dakota Formation. Work being conducted by the Santee Sioux Nation and Dr. Ralph Davis of the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) Title 106 Water Quality Management Program, will aid in linking ground-water quality with specific aquifers on the Reservation.

Figure S-1. Location of the Santee Sioux Reservation.

The Dakota Formation is composed of interbedded sandstone and claystone. Depth to the top of the formation ranges from 800 to 1,000 feet; yields range from 50 to 500 gallons per minute. Water quality is generally poor, suffering from high total dissolved solids, sulfate, iron, and manganese. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) theorized that seepage from the Dakota Formation into the overlying Quaternary alluvium is responsible for the elevated levels of these constituents that are found in most Reservation water supplies.

Preliminary findings from U.S. EPA Title 106 Water Quality Management Program studies in progress on the Reservation indicate that pesticides do not appear to be an immediate problem for Reservation domestic ground-water supplies. On the other hand, nitrate-nitrogen and total coliform bacteria appear to exceed U.S. EPA primary drinking water standards in a significant number of wells. It is tentatively concluded that the offending contaminant source is related to septic system effluent or onsite confined animal feeding operations, rather than to agricultural nonpoint pollution.

Without question, adequate supplies of good quality water are essential for supporting local economic growth and for enhancing quality of life on the Reservation. Although not perceived as a direct health risk, poor quality water delivered to the Village, cluster projects, and many rural areas imposes economic constraints on the Reservation. To this end, six Reservationwide water supply alternatives are presented in this report to illustrate the range of water supply options (and costs) that could be considered in future planning endeavors. Alternatives were included that draw water either from surface and ground-water sources or that tie into rural water authority systems in close proximity to the Reservation. Wastewater facilities that would be necessary to accommodate increased flow from an expanded water supply network are briefly addressed.

In-depth comparison and detailed engineering design of water supply alternatives for the Reservation constitute the next level of planning.

Background

The Santee Indian Reservation was established by Presidential Executive Order of February 27, 1866. The Reservation covers approximately 184 square miles (approximately 117,000 acres) in the north-central part of Knox County in northeastern Nebraska (figure S-1). Lewis and Clark Lake and the Missouri River form the northern boundary of the Reservation. Most of the residents are in the northern half of the Reservation in the Village. The nearest off-Reservation towns are Niobrara, Nebraska (12 miles southwest of the Village), Yankton, South Dakota (about 30 miles northeast of the Village), and the city of Center, located south of the Reservation boundary.

Several comprehensive reports have been prepared that address the water resources of the Reservation. These include two reports from B&E Engineering, Inc., of Yankton, South Dakota, entitled, “Water Resource Inventory, Santee Indian Reservation” (Phase I, 1978, and Phase II, 1981) and the U.S. Department of the Interior, USGS 1995 administrative report entitled, “Physical Characteristics and Water-Resources Appraisal of the Santee Indian Reservation in Northeastern Nebraska.” Much of the information and physical setting description used in this report was excerpted from these documents. More recent work includes three reports prepared as part of ongoing Santee Sioux Nation environmental programs, entitled (1) “Baseline Assessment of Water Quality on the Santee Sioux Reservation 1996-1997 and Framework for Tribal Water Quality Management Plan,” (2) “Assessment of Water Quality on the Santee Sioux Reservation May 1998 - March 1999 and Tribal Water Quality Management Plan,” and (3) “Hydrogeologic Assessment of the Bazile Creek Wellfield and the Potential Southeast Well Field.” Only minimal information was found regarding yields of existing wells and aquifers on the Reservation. As such, yield capability of existing individual and community wells is addressed only peripherally in the report. However, the recent report on the Bazile Creek well field and the aquifer underlying the southeast corner of the Reservation does include modeled yield potential for these aquifers.

The chapters that follow discuss the Reservation’s cultural setting, resource setting, community services and infrastructure, current economic conditions, base population and population projections, water quality, water resource evaluation, water supply and treatment, estimate of future water demands, water supply alternatives, and wastewater treatment. Attachments 1-5 include appraisal grade cost estimates for developed alternatives, the US Filter Proposal, and supporting information from Cedar-Knox Rural Water Project and West Knox Rural Water System.

Study Objectives

In developing this report, items that typically are included in a water needs assessment were addressed in the context of water supply and water quality issues of immediate concern to the Santee Sioux Nation (Santee Nation). Tribal concerns were conveyed to the Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) in numerous planning meetings and revisited at intervals during the course of the study. Included were the following:

• Sedimentation and deteriorating conditions at the Bazile Creek well field
• Poor water quality and yield of wells on eastern portions of the Reservation
• Pesticide contamination of potable water sources
• Treatment and storage capabilities of the current water system
• Viability of a Reservationwide water supply and distribution system, including possible sale of water to the off-Reservation towns of Niobrara and Center

Authority and Funding

This study was performed under authority of the Federal Reclamation Act of June 17, 1902, as amended. Funding was provided through Reclamation’s Technical Assistance to States and Native American Affairs Program.

Chapter 1
CULTURAL SETTING

Back to top

This chapter provides a historical and background summary to promote an understanding of the current cultural, social, and economic conditions and needs on the Santee Indian Reservation (Reservation).

Reservation Lands

The Santee Indian Reservation covers an area of about 115,000 acres. The large majority of the Reservation land is owned by non-Indians, with about 10 percent tribally owned or individually allotted. Tribal and allotted lands are interspersed with non-Indian lands on the Reservation (figure S-1 in the Executive Summary).

History and Background

The Dakota people occupied a vast area of what is now southern Canada, western Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, and northeastern Missouri. This land had many marshes, lakes, and rivers that supported abundant and diverse plant and animal life. The diet of the Dakota people was mainly wild rice, berries, fish, and timber game until they were forced onto the prairies, where their diet was principally buffalo. In the mid-1600s and 1700s, when contact with missionaries, explorers, and French traders occurred, the Nakota and Dakota were mainly in Minnesota, although they sometimes hunted in the Des Moines River headwaters or along the Big Sioux River. By the late 1700s, they were hunting more regularly along the upper Des Moines and Cedar Rivers.

In 1825, the Nakota and Dakota agreed to a treaty of peace with the Sauk and Meskwaki that restricted them somewhat to an area mostly north of Iowa, in Minnesota. The peace treaty was meant to end Yankton and Santee occupancy of Iowa. Further treaties during the mid- to late1800s, however, were imposed to confirm the Yankton and Santee relinquishment of land claims in Iowa and Minnesota.

The Santee Sioux Nation is part of the Dakota-speaking branch of the Sioux Nation. In the English language, Dakota translates to mean “allies” or “friends.” The name Santee stems from the original “Isanyanti” (Isanti), which is a Dakota word that translates loosely as “knife people dwellers.” The Dakota Nation consists of four distinct bands: Mdewakantonwan (Spirit Lake Dwellers), Sisitonwan (Fisher’s Camp), Wahpeton (Leaf Dwellers), and the Wahpekute (Shoot the Leaf). A woodland Tribe, the Santee lived in permanent villages in Minnesota and engaged in agriculture and farming for much of the year. Hunts were conducted twice a year. During hunting and food gathering season, they roamed vast areas, moving their camps often. Because the Dakota resided primarily along the boundary of the Sioux Nation, which ranged from Minnesota to the northern Rocky Mountains in Montana and south through the northwestern part of Nebraska, they became known as the “frontier guardians of the Sioux Nation.”
The recorded history of the Santee Sioux began when French explorers encountered the Mdewakantonwan band of the Dakota Nation in Minnesota in 1658. Most of the Santee history before that encounter was passed on orally. Beginning in the early 1800s and continuing through most of that century, white settlers moved into territory occupied by the Sioux.

In 1854, an Act passed by the Congress allowed the President to confirm an area in what is now South Dakota, western Minnesota, Iowa, and North Dakota to be reserved for the Sisitonwan, Wahpeton, Mdewakantonwan, and Wahpekute bands. Friction began to grow between the Santee, the United States Government, and the white settlers. Mistrust felt by settlers and the Santee led to isolated outbreaks of violence. In 1862, the friction reached an explosive stage and, as a result, the four bands took part in an uprising in western Minnesota. The Santee were forced to surrender under the overpowering attack of the U.S. troops. Because of this short-lived uprising, 38 Santee were mass executed by hanging in Mankato, Minnesota, in December 1862, and others were sent to prison in Davenport, Iowa. This was the largest mass execution in the history of the United States.

Because of the uprising, all Santee Sioux lands within the State of Minnesota were forfeited to the United States and the removal of the remaining Santee Sioux Indians from the State of Minnesota began. They were exiled to a site in South Dakota along the Missouri River, 100 miles from Fort Randall and about 8 miles above Crow Creek (named Crow Creek Reservation). In 1864, over 1,300 Santee were placed at Crow Creek. Within 3 months, starvation and disease reduced the number to 1,000. Although the Crow Creek episode lasted only 3 years, it was an important period in the history of the Santee Sioux. Recognizing the unfeasibility of making Crow Creek a permanent Reservation site, the government decided to locate the Tribe in northeastern Nebraska.

On February 27, 1866, President Andrew Johnson’s Executive Order was issued, withdrawing from preemption and sale four townships (Union, Hill, Spade, and Harrison) that were to be used to establish the Santee Sioux Reservation. The 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie, or the “Act of Divide,” determined the present Reservation boundaries, allowed land to be purchased by the Santee Normal Training School, and provided for the allotment of land to tribal members who desired to farm. The allotment was, “To each head of a family, one quarter of a section; to each single person over eighteen years, one eighth of a section; to each orphan child under eighteen years, one eighth of a section; to each other person under eighteen years of age now living, one sixteenth of a section.”

Over the next 15 years, allotments were made, although titles were issued years later. In the summer of 1869, the boundaries of the Santee Reservation became officially established. After several changes, inclusions, and withdrawals, the Santee Reservation became a compact,
rectangular tract of land 12 miles from east to west, averaging about 15 miles from north to south, and encompassing about 115,076 acres. The chief advantage of the site was its plentiful timber and at least 2,000 acres of tillable land. The southern and eastern portions included some good agricultural grazing land.

Being low on the Missouri River, it was easy to send supplies to the area. The government decided that the site would allow the Santee Sioux to become self-supporting. A number of businesses operated in the Village of Santee (Village), including a machine shop, a sawmill, a physician’s office, warehouses, granaries, and others. A post office that was established during the 1860s remained open until 1956, when mail service was moved to Niobrara. At one time, a ferry that was powered by a horse treadmill was operated from Santee across the Missouri River. Later, the ferry had to cease operation because of water fluctuations in the river caused by the opening and closing of dams.

The education policies for American Indian children during this period were first developed by missionaries who wanted to christianize American Indians through general education programs. Churches were built during this period, and some, such as the Episcopal Church at Santee, are still in use today. Reverend Alfred Langley Riggs, D.D., was the key figure in forming a school on the Santee Reservation for the purpose of educating Native Americans to become missionaries to their own people. Riggs founded the Santee Normal Training School in 1870, only 1 year after the Santee Sioux establishment was finalized as an academy for training Native American teachers. The school had an enrollment of 111 students from the immediate area, and within a short period of time, students arrived from other Dakota Sioux communities.

The Santee Normal Training School greatly influenced the development of the Tribe during the latter decades of the 19th century. An important policy of the Santee Normal Training School was that instruction should take place in the Dakota language, especially in the teaching of theology. Riggs was strongly convinced of the importance of teaching in the Dakota language. As an educator and linguist, he understood that thought and philosophy were closely tied to the spoken Dakota words. The world view of the Dakota people was also reflected in the Dakota language. Even more important, in 1871, the Santee Normal Training School had set up a printing press and printed many materials in the Dakota language, including a newspaper called the Iapi Oaye—or “Word Carrier.” This newspaper was printed partly in English and partly in Dakota and was circulated to over 1,200 residents each week. Many works were also translated from English into the Dakota language. The most commonly used works were the Bible, hymnals, and other religious writings. These books are still used in some families today as a means of teaching the Dakota language because, when being read, Dakota is spoken in a slower rhythm. In summary, the printing, preservation, and continued use of the Dakota language was accomplished—perhaps inadvertently—by the missionaries through this school. One noted former student of the Santee Normal Training School is Dr. Charles Alexander Eastman, who started school not knowing the English language. He was able to learn English and compete successfully at Dartmouth College and, later, at Boston University, where he received a medical degree.

The government agencies were strongly opposed to the use of the Dakota language in classroom instruction at the Santee Normal Training School, but they gave aid in the form of food rations for those students who were not from Santee. Riggs then asked the government to subsidize the tuition payments of the students, which they agreed to do. This aid was continued and even increased from 1883 to 1893. The school initially included a shoe shop, carpenter shop, and blacksmith shop. By 1885, the school had increased to 18 buildings on 480 acres. Government agents continued to pressure Riggs to discontinue teaching in the Dakota language, saying that if he would not stop, they would withdraw their financial support. Riggs argued that the use of the Dakota language was “. . . indispensable to best instruction. Things, not names, are what the true teacher must grasp.” Government agent Janney said, “So long as they are educated in their native tongue, they are still Indian. And, as everyone knows, the primary aim of our Indian policy is to transform Indians into white men.” In spite of Riggs arguments for teaching in the native language, the government agents would not relent; eventually, government aid to the school was stopped altogether in 1893. The theological classes had to be suspended, as this course was held almost entirely in the Dakota language. The training of the interpreters had to be terminated too, as the government commissioners ordered. However, the school remained in operation until 1933.

A Presidential order required that all Reservation lands not allotted by April 15, 1885, would, on May 15, 1885, revert to public domain, thus opening the Reservation to white settlement. By April 15, 1885, about 72,000 acres had been divided into 853 allotments. About 42,000 acres were open to white settlement, and 1,300 acres were reserved for agency, school, and missionary use. Allotments were gradually leased or sold to non-Indian farmers until the amount of land controlled by the Santee was reduced to the present acreage.

From 1885 through 1934, the history of the Santee Sioux can be understood only in relation to the general treatment of Indians during the period. The Agency of the Santee Reservation closed in 1917, and government services were gradually withdrawn. The practice of leasing had reduced the holdings of Indian lands. The Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of 1934 brought a change in Indian policy. The Act stopped the allotments and required the Secretary of the Interior to attempt to regain land lost during the allotment act. IRA also proclaimed the Congress to be supportive of Indian self-governance and the creation of tribal constitutions. Indian Tribes (historically and at present) are subject to acts of the Congress; however, since the passage of the Indian Education and Self-Determination Act of 1972, the Tribes have been given some measure of control over their internal affairs.

Establishment of the Santee Reservation and Current Conditions

The Reservation was established in 1866 from four townships reserved from sale for the Sisitonwan, Wahpeton, Mdewakantonwan, and Wahpekute Branch. Additions and changes have since been made by Executive Orders of July 1867, August 1869, and December 1873.

Currently, the Santee Nation is governed by a Tribal Council consisting of eight members: the chairman, vice-chairman, secretary, treasurer, and four council members, who are elected at large every 4 years. The Santee Sioux Tribal Council members are elected by the people to full-time positions: one member from the Santee District, one member from the Hobu Creek District, one member from the Howe Creek District, and one member from the Bazile Creek District. In addition to conducting routine tribal business, the Tribal Council provides the community with police, fire, and ambulance service, as well as other essential community services (Tiller Research, Inc., 1996).

During the early and middle 1960s, the Reservation population dipped below 300. However, between 1970 and 1980, the trend reversed and the population expanded about fourfold. One reason for the expansion was increased Federal funding for Reservation projects and programs (particularly housing) that created jobs and attracted people back to the Reservation. The Village of Santee became incorporated on February 18, 1974, giving it the distinction of being both one of Nebraska’s oldest and newest towns.

Cultural and spiritual revival accompanied the expansion of the community on the Reservation. Despite a cultural renewal, tribal leaders believe three or four generations will be needed for full recovery of the old culture.

Aside from the Santee Normal Training School, the Reservation had none of its own educational facilities after the closing of the boarding school in 1909. The community wanted educational facilities that reflected their values and, in 1975, a school was built at Santee. The school was originally limited to kindergarten through eighth grade, and later offered a 4-year high school curriculum. A 2-year community college, one of the four branches of the Nebraska Indian Community College, is a fully accredited higher education institution that offers Associate of Arts, Associate of Science, and Associate of Applied Science degrees, and some certificate programs. The college offers a 2-year degree program in natural resources and provides contact information on natural resources internships, both paid and unpaid. The college has built a strong partnership with the Santee Sioux Land and Resource Management Offices by participating in several environmental projects.

Chapter 2
RESOURCE SETTING

Back to top

This chapter discusses the physical resource setting of the Reservation, including climate,
drainage and landform, soils, land use, and geology and ground water.

Climate

The study area has a subhumid climate with warm summers and cold winters. July is the warmest month, with an average high temperature of 88.9 °F, and January is the coldest month, with an average low temperature of 9.0 °F. Extremes in temperature range from -31 to 109 °F. The annual mean temperature of the Reservation area is 48.3 °F (Nebraska Department of Natural Resources, 2003).

The mean annual precipitation for the 54-year period from 1948-2002 was 22.37 inches, as measured at the weather station at Niobrara. More than 60 percent of the rainfall occurs during the months of April to September, with occasional dry periods from the latter part of July through August.

The average annual potential evapotranspiration (PET) for the study area from 1964-97, as measured at the Dixon County site, was 40.18 inches. The site at Gavins Point Dam has a slightly longer record (1961-1995). There, the average was 46.93 inches. PET is the loss of water that would occur from the soil and through plants if the availability of water was not a limiting factor.

Drainage and Landform

Drainage in the study area consists of major rivers, creeks, and their tributaries. Howe, Hobu, Lost, and Sand Creeks flow into Bazile Creek, which flows into the Missouri River (figure 2-1). The Missouri River is deeply entrenched along the northern boundary of the study area and, as a consequence, most of the drainage is northward. Flood plains with low terraces have formed along Howe, Bazile, and Lost Creeks and the Missouri River. Elevations in the study area range from approximately 1200 feet above sea level, at the Missouri River, to 1900 feet in upland areas.

As described in the 1978 B&E Engineering, Inc., Phase I report (B&E Phase I report), Bazile Creek rises in Antelope County, enters the Reservation near the community of Center, and continues northward to its confluence with the Missouri River near the northwest corner of the Reservation. In all, it drains 365 square miles, 56.2 square miles of which lie on the Reservation. A tributary to Bazile Creek, Howe Creek drains the eastern and southeastern portions of the Reservation. Howe Creek drains approximately 93 square miles, 64.6 of which lie in the Reservation.

Figure 2-1. Reservation by drainage basins.

Lost Creek drains 26 square miles in the north-central to northwestern portion of the Reservation; the Lost Creek watershed lies entirely within the Reservation (Davis et al.,
2001). The creek rises 2 to 3 miles south of the Village of Santee and flows southwesterly to its confluence with the Missouri River.

Except for the Missouri River, Bazile Creek has the largest average streamflow. Long-term streamflow data (1953-93) within the study area are available for one U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) continuous-record streamflow gaging station on Bazile Creek, near Niobrara (station
number 06466500). This station was located 2.3 miles upstream from the confluence of Bazile Creek and the Missouri River, but it was discontinued in 1995. Flow characteristics are useful for forecasting seasonal low flows and for determining the adequacy of the streamflow for various supply requirements. Small minimum flows indicate that Bazile Creek is probably sustained during periods of little or no runoff by base flow. Further detailed discussion of depletions and natural flows of Reservation streams is presented in the B&E Phase I report.

The study area is located along the approximate boundary between the Dissected Till Plains section of the Central Lowland physiographic province and the nonglaciated Missouri Plateau section of the Great Plains physiographic province. In Nebraska, the Central Lowland merges almost imperceptibly into the Great Plains.

Lewis and Clark Lake (created by Gavins Point Dam, constructed in 1955) has inundated all the low-lying parts of the Missouri River Valley, except for high terraces near the Village and high terraces at the confluence with Bazile Creek. The major stream valleys in the study area include remnants along the Missouri River, areas along all of Bazile and Howe Creeks, and areas along the downstream reaches of Lost Creek. Bluffs and escarpments occur where the streams are deeply incised into the land surface and have formed on bedrock outcrops of chalk, shale, and siltstone. Bluffs and escarpments occur along Lewis and Clark Lake, Bazile Creek, and the downstream reaches of Lost and Howe Creeks.

Soils

Two major physical divisions occur within the Reservation: the Loess Hills in the southern portion and the Pierre Plains and Hills in the northern portion. Typically, the topography of the Loess Hills ranges from gently rolling to steeply rough and broken. Topography of the Pierre Plains and Hills is extremely rough and broken near the Missouri River, becoming more rolling as it approaches the Loess Hills.

The predominant parent materials for soils in the study area are alluvium and colluvium on the bottom lands and loess and Pierre Shale on the uplands. Soil associations occurring on bottom lands in the Missouri River Valley are subject to frequent flooding. Soil characteristics including texture, slope, and position are important factors affecting the hydrologic characteristics of the soil associations found in the study area.

Land Use

Land-use patterns (figure 2-2) can be related to landform and soils in the study area. The forests are primarily in the northern part of the study area and on bottom lands along Bazile, Lost, and Howe Creeks. Pasture and rangeland are primarily on the dissected plains with moderate to steep slopes. Cropland exists in the remainder of the study area, mainly in areas of rolling hills with slight to moderate slopes. The 2002 agricultural crop data for Knox County show corn as the largest harvested acreage, followed in decreasing order by hay, soybeans, and oats (Nebraska Agricultural Statistics Service). Livestock represent an important source of water demand and agricultural income in the area. The Tribe operates an 800-head cattle operation, as well as a 100-head buffalo operation. Figure 2-2. Land use data for the Santee Sioux Reservation.

Geology and Ground Water

The study area is underlain by approximately 1,600 to 1,800 feet of sedimentary Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic deposits which overlie relatively impermeable Precambrian basement rock (see table 2-1). The Paleozoic deposits, which formed in marine and near-marine environments, are generally composed of interbedded limestone, dolomite, dolomitic shales and limestone, and sandstone. These undifferentiated deposits evidently have not been used as a water source in the study area; therefore, their water quality and yield capabilities are not known. It is expected that any water yielded from these formations would contain high total dissolved solids (TDS). Estimated yields range from 50 to 200 gallons per minute (gpm). The great depth to these formations would more than likely preclude their future development as a significant source of water.

Table 2-1. Generalized stratigraphic column for the Santee Indian Reservation, Nebraska
Era	System	Geologic unit
Cenozoic	Quaternary	Alluvial deposits
		Eolian deposits
		Glacial deposits
	Tertiary	Ogallala Formation
Mesozoic	Cretaceous	Pierre shale
		Niobrara Formation
		Carlile shale
		Greenhorn limestone
		Graneros shale
		Dakota Formation
Paleozoic	Ordovician and Devonian, undifferentiated	Undifferentiated
Precambrian	Undifferentiated	Undifferentiated

The Mesozoic era is represented by Cretaceous period formations. In descending geologic order, they include the Pierre Shale, Niobrara Formation, Carlile Shale, Greenhorn Limestone, Graneros Shale, and Dakota Formation. Of these, the Dakota Formation and the Codell sandstone member of the Carlile Shale are the only deposits known to yield significant potable water supplies. The Codell sandstone member is a thin (5 to 10 foot), confined layer of fine-grained sandstone located near the top of the Carlile Shale. It generally yields 10 to 30 gpm. The Dakota Formation is composed of interbedded sandstone and claystone. Depth to the top of the Dakota Formation generally ranges from 800 to 1,000 feet; its thickness varies from approximately 400 feet in the northwest portion of the study area to 600 feet in the southeast portion. It is a confined aquifer, although it may be hydraulically connected to the Lower Paleozoic system, where present. It has the potential to produce artesian wells in the study area. Well yields can range from 50 to 500 gpm.

The Pierre, Niobrara, most of the Carlile, and the Graneros Formations are composed of relatively impermeable materials. The Greenhorn Limestone may have some secondary permeability that could yield higher volumes of water, but it most likely would have high TDS.

The Tertiary Ogallala Formation, of the Cenozoic era, occurs mainly within the uplands of the study area where the formation has been subject to erosion. Composed of fluvial deposits of unconsolidated to semiconsolidated interbedded sand and silt, it is relatively thin, with a thickness ranging from about 10 to 50 feet. Although used extensively throughout the High Plains region, the Ogallala aquifer is not known to yield significant amounts of water within the study area. Well yields generally range from 10 to 50 gpm. Water from the formation is expected to be of intermediate to good quality.

Quaternary alluvial, eolian, and glacial deposits cap the entire study area, except where they have been removed by erosion along the margins of stream valleys. Glacial till is found in the upland areas and is composed of poorly sorted silt, clay, shale, and limestone fragments. The till has a low permeability, and wells yield less than 10 gpm. Eolian deposits are composed of silt and clayey-silt found in the upland areas. The eolian deposits are expected to yield less than 10 gpm.

The Quaternary alluvial aquifers supply most of the ground water in the study area. These aquifers are mainly composed of unconsolidated sand and gravel deposits with interbedded silt and clay. They are associated with recent major stream deposits and buried stream channels.

The alluvial aquifers in the lower reaches of the major tributaries overlie the Pierre and Niobrara Formations. The alluvial aquifer of the Missouri River adjacent to the Reservation overlies the Carlile Shale and Niobrara Formation (Reclamation, 1994). Well yields from these deposits can vary significantly (50 to 750 gpm), as can the water quality, depending on contributing inflow from adjacent formations or overlying streams. The alluvial aquifers are essentially unconfined, but buried stream channels may be confined to semiconfined.

The generalized local flow gradient in the Quaternary aquifers is towards the major stream channels that cut through these formations and act as drains. Discharge measurements made by USGS during November 1988 on all major streams in the study area (except the Missouri River) indicated that Howe and Lost Creeks are gaining streams (show increased streamflow) and Bazile Creek is mostly a gaining stream.

Chapter 3
COMMUNITY SERVICES AND
INFRASTRUCTURE

Back to top

This chapter discusses aspects of public health and welfare, housing, and education as they exist on the Reservation.

Public Health and Welfare

An outpatient clinic serves the area. The clinic has two examination rooms and laboratory and X-ray facilities. There are four physicians who work half days at the clinic on a rotating basis. A physician’s assistant and five nurses (one full-time) staff the clinic. Dental services are also available 4-1/2 days per week, and a pharmacy is located in the clinic. A community tribal center; a K-12 school; a head-start program; a day-care program; and a community college (including a public library) are located in the area. The school had a total of 133 students during the 2002-03 school year; 57 of them were high school students.

The Village of Santee and Highway 12 and Howe Creek subdivisions are served by community water systems. The Village and Howe Creek subdivision have community sewer and wastewater treatment and disposal systems. The Santee-Sioux Utility Commission is responsible for operating the water, sewer, and solid waste facilities for these communities. Water quality, water supply systems, and wastewater disposal facilities are described later in the report.

The Indian Health Service (IHS) publication, Regional Differences in Indian Health (2000-2001), indicates that the Aberdeen service area (which includes the Santee Sioux Nation) had an overall death rate that was more than double the rate for all of the United States during the 1996-98 period. Heart disease accounted for 21.1 percent of all deaths in the Aberdeen service area, cancer accounted for 15 percent of all deaths, intentional injuries accounted for 14.4 percent of all deaths, and diabetes accounted for 7.5 percent of all deaths.

Housing

Currently, there are 143 tribal housing units in the Village. There are 30 units in rural areas scattered throughout the Reservation. Ten housing units are currently under construction near the Village of Santee, and infrastructure are available for 30 more. A 2001 housing study indicated a need for 27 more housing units by 2006. Housing priorities and the housing charges imposed are based on wages or self-help programs. Table 3-1 shows current housing statistics (based on the 2000 census).

The average household size estimates presented in table 3-1 for the Santee Reservation and for the Village are likely to be underestimated, especially for Native American households. Housing authorities have indicated that the average number of people in each household on the Santee Reservation is likely to be 4.5 to 5 persons per household. Regardless of the data source, Native American households are, on average, larger than the average for the rest of Knox County and the rest of Nebraska. At the same time, the vacancy rate of housing units in Santee and in the Santee Reservation is somewhat lower than for all of Knox County. The housing data do not indicate how many of those unoccupied housing units are unsuitable for occupancy.

Table 3-1. Housing

Housing characteristic

Santee Village

Santee Reservation

Knox County

Nebraska

Units

Occupied units

Vacancy rate

Average household size

All households

Native American households

115

19.1%

3.08

3.20

364

294

19.3%

2.98

3.20

4,773

3,811

20.2%

2.40

3.12

722,668

666,184

7.8%

2.49

3.32

Median rent

Monthly ownership costs

With a mortgage

Without a mortgage

$165

$179

$372

$190

$264

$607

$242

$491

$895

$283

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000 census

Education

The level of educational attainment is somewhat lower on the Reservation than for the rest of Nebraska and the United States (table 3-2). Approximately 68 percent of the people 25 years of age or older living on the Reservation are high school graduates or the equivalent, compared to 75.2 percent for the United States as a whole and 81.8 percent for the State of Nebraska. There is a need to convert the existing 2-year community college to a 4-year program. A stronger economy would help to retain better educated people on the Reservation.

Table 3-2 Education levels

Level of education

Santee Village

(%)

Santee Reservation

(%)

Knox County

(%)

Nebraska

(%)

United States

(%)

Entire population

High school (or equivalent) or higher

Bachelors degree or higher

73.5

8.1

81.1

9.6

82.0

14.4

86.6

23.7

80.4

24.4

Native American population

High school (or equivalent) or higher

Bachelors degree or higher

72.4

1.6

75.2

3.9

74.6

5.1

75.9

8.8

70.9

11.5

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000 census.

The education level of residents on the Santee Reservation and the Village of Santee is comparable when looking at high school graduation rates. However, the education level is considerably lower on the Reservation than in other areas when comparing the percentage of the population with a Bachelors degree or higher.

The relatively low percentage of the population with a Bachelors degree is a possible indicator that there is a need for a 4-year college program in addition to the current 2-year degree program. The need to maintain or improve the current level of educational attainment is very important in creating a strong Reservation economy.

Chapter 4
CURRENT ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

Back to top

This chapter discusses economic conditions on the Reservation, including unemployment, income, and poverty data. It also discusses commercial and industrial activity in the area.

Current economic conditions on the Reservation and in the area can be illustrated by looking at the types of employment available, unemployment rates, income, and the types of businesses and industry in the region. Most jobs held by Reservation residents are relatively low-paying jobs in the agricultural, services, and administrative support sectors. About 30 percent of employed persons work in agricultural jobs, 22 percent in service-related jobs, and 11 percent in administrative support jobs (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1997). Only 16 percent of the jobs are executive or professional specialty occupations, and 12 percent are higher-paying skilled labor jobs.

Unemployment, Income, and Poverty

Employment and income estimates are available from the 2000 census for Indian Reservations and other smaller areas. These data are presented to give some indication of the historical economic conditions on the Reservation. Unemployment, income, and poverty rates from the 2000 census are shown in table 4-1. Unemployment and poverty rates have been significantly higher on the Reservation than in Knox County and Nebraska as a whole, and income is significantly lower. The median annual household income on the Reservation was $20,938 in 1999, compared to $39,250 for Nebraska and $41,994 for the United States. The median annual household income for Indian households on the Reservation was $16,600. Per capita annual income was $9,532 on the Reservation, compared to $19,613 for all of Nebraska and $21,587 for the United States. Unemployment, as reported in the 2000 census, was 7.6 percent on the Reservation, compared to 3.5 percent for Nebraska and 5.8 percent for the United States in 1990. It should be noted that the procedures used to estimate unemployment as a percentage of the labor force can result in an underestimate of true unemployment in areas with chronic unemployment. Therefore, the estimated unemployment presented in table 4-1 on the Santee Reservation is likely to be lower than the actual unemployment rate.

Table 4-1. Unemployment, income, and poverty rates

Economic indicator

Santee Village

Santee Reservation

Knox County

Nebraska

Unemployment

Median household income

Population at or below poverty

20.0%

$16,250

45.4%

7.6%

$20,938

33.1%

3.7%

$27,564

15.6%

3.5%

$39,250

9.7%

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000 census

Current Commercial and Industrial Activity

There are currently several businesses located on the Reservation. A 16-acre tribal industrial park is located 9 miles south of the Village of Santee on Highway 12. The Santee Nation operates a ranch that produces beef cattle and alfalfa. The ranch currently has over 800 head of cattle on approximately 3,400 acres of tribal land. A herd of 100 buffalo is maintained by the Santee Nation in an effort to promote cultural ties and tourism. The Santee Nation also owns and operates the Lewis and Clark grocery store, which is planned for expansion. Other businesses on the Reservation include the Ohiya Casino; the Santee Pony Express gas station, which employs about 11 people; Isanti Contractors; and the Takoja Tipi Day Care Center. The Casino opened in early 1996 and provides about 15 jobs. The largest employers in the study area are the Santee Sioux Tribe, which employs 73 people, and the Santee Public School, which employs 50 people (Nebraska Department of Economic Development, 2003).

Tourism, centered around Lewis and Clark Lake, has not generated as much revenue for the Santee Nation as might be expected. Hunting, fishing, and other sports have been developed mainly by private interests in the nearby Devil’s Nest Area. Other recreational facilities in the area include a public golf course, tennis courts, a public swimming pool, and two public parks.

Crop and livestock production are important parts of the Knox County and Reservation economy. Corn is the dominant irrigated and dry land crop, and cattle represent a large percentage of total agricultural sales. Approximately 83 percent of the total value of agricultural products sold in Knox County was related to cattle. Hay, oats, and soybeans are also important crops. The Census of Agriculture acreages are presented in table 4-2.

Table 4-2. Knox County cropping patterns

Crop/Land

1985

1989

1993

1997

2001

Irrigated land

Corn

Soybeans

Hay

23,000

1,300

3,500

31,700

3,600

7,900

27,800

5,800

4,600

28,100

11,500

2,400

31,100

16,800

4,500

All land

Corn

Sorghum

Oats

Soybeans

Hay

114,900

8,500

58,000

22,000

91,000

100,500

5,300

41,000

34,000

84,000

107,000

5,000

42,000

37,000

99,000

111,800

500

6,900

54,400

86,000

110,000

7,400

68,000

93,000

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Census of Agriculture, 1997

The number of farms in Knox County decreased from 1,212 farms in 1987 to 1,053 in 1997, a reduction of about 13 percent. However, the size of the average farm has increased by 10 percent, from 507 acres to 566 acres. About 75 percent of all the agricultural enterprises in
Knox County included cattle. Total livestock sales in Knox County were $136.5 million in 1997, and total crop sales were $28.2 million. The net cash return for agricultural operations averaged $26.90 per acre in 1997. Production expenses averaged about $140,100 per farm in 1997.
The 1981 B&E Engineering, Inc., Phase II report (B&E Phase II report) included estimates and projections for irrigated acreage and livestock production on the Reservation. The report estimated a total of 1,036 irrigated acres on the Reservation in 1980. Irrigated acres on the Reservation were projected to increase to 5,690 in 2000. The Census of Agriculture for 1978 and 1997 shows that the number of irrigated acres in Knox County increased by about 37 percent over the 1978-97 period. Although the number of irrigated acres on the Reservation may have increased over the last 20 years, the Reservation accounts for a relatively small percentage of total irrigated acreage in Knox County. Livestock production is the most important agricultural activity on the Reservation.

Future Economic Growth

The future growth of business and industry on the Santee Reservation cannot be predicted with certainty because of the large number of external factors that could potentially affect economic development. Unlike population projections, future commercial and industrial growth may not be influenced greatly by current business patterns. Businesses may locate in a region or leave an area for a variety of reasons that are unrelated to past business location decisions. These reasons may include the availability of tax incentives, transportation linkages, infrastructure, and a labor force.

Potential Areas of Economic Growth and Possible Location of Growth

A strip mall in the Village is planned for the near future. The strip mall includes nine lots. Several different types of businesses would locate in the strip mall, including a convenience store, a bar, a used clothing store, and a laundromat. Other businesses likely to locate in the strip mall would be similar, service-oriented businesses. Additional potential future development includes a gas station, near Highway 12, and a recreational vehicle (RV) park. Planned future community buildings and facilities include a police and fire station in the Village, a boy’s and girl’s club, a fitness center, a community center and park, and a swimming pool.

Future industrial development on the Reservation would most likely be in the industrial park on Highway 12 or in a new industrial site planned for the south of town. Industries that have been considered or attempted in the area but have not been successful or completed include a medical supply facility, a box factory, a meat packing plant, and a hog operation. Any future industrial development is likely to be of a small scale and could include activities such as processing food, assembling components, or some other type of light industry.

Agricultural development has been an important part of the Santee Reservation economy in the past and will continue to be important in the future. The B&E Phase II report (1981) indicated that about 12 percent of the total number of cattle, hogs, sheep, and chickens in the region were on the Reservation. This represents a significant percentage of the total livestock in the county and indicates that livestock are a very important part of the Reservation and county economy. The Santee Nation has aggressively pursued agricultural development aggressively through the acquisition of neighboring ranching and farming land. Growth in ranching would be expected in the future. The number of cattle may increase, perhaps to as many as 1,000 head. The buffalo herd will also likely increase in the future, perhaps to 200 head. Logging and reseeding operations represent another potential source of future development.

Housing and educational programs in the past have been responsible for 121 single family dwellings, 4 duplexes, a housing project for the elderly, and a school that was built in 1975 and now houses a kindergarten and grades 1 through 12. Residential development will continue into the future, and 30 home sites will become available behind the planned strip mall. Residential development will be needed to support the projected increase in population. This population increase and residential development will result in an increase in service and goods oriented businesses, such as those likely to locate in the strip mall.

Lime, gravel, and sand resources in the area may present potential opportunities for future mining activities. Recreational development associated with Lewis and Clark Lake may offer opportunities for economic growth in the service sector. The Tribe has indicated an interest in building a golf course and park facilities. The Ohiya Casino represents a significant source of employment to the Reservation (the class II gaming facility is in full operation). Gaming could be an increasing source of future employment and income. The Tribe has indicated a desire to expand the casino at some point in the future. Other desired development associated with the casino includes a hotel and, possibly, a golf course.

The high level of unemployment indicates that there is a readily available workforce as a percentage of the total population. However, the relatively low level of education, limited work experience, and the small labor pool in absolute terms limits the types and size of establishments that could move onto the Reservation.

The recent completion of the Chief Standing Bear Memorial Bridge has greatly improved access to the Santee Reservation from several South Dakota towns. The bridge connects South Dakota Highway 37 and Nebraska Highway 14 and is about 2 miles from the village of Niobrara. It is unclear whether the bridge will ultimately benefit the South Dakota towns or the Nebraska towns the most. However, the bridge does provide the Santee Reservation with the potential to improve its prospects for economic development compared to conditions without the bridge.

The size of these new establishments cannot be predicted with any certainty because the demand for future goods and services is unknown. For the purposes of this analysis, the following

assumptions were used. The casino was projected to double in size, and a 50-space RV park was projected, along with a 100-room hotel. The new light-industry establishment was assumed to have about 35 employees, and a 9-hole golf course was assumed. Finally, the community center would include a 2-acre park and a 10,000-square-foot swimming pool.

Summary of Future Commercial Growth

Future commercial growth on the Santee Indian Reservation will most likely be limited to service-oriented establishments, specialty stores, and, perhaps, small industrial establishments.

Based on the information available, the following future development is projected:

• A strip mall: nine lots; all service oriented

• One additional small, light-industrial establishment, either at the planned new site or the existing site

• A gas station/convenience store

• An RV park

• Casino expansion

• A hotel near the casino

• Community buildings and facilities, including a police station, a fire station, a boys’ and girls’ club, a fitness center, a community center and park, and a swimming pool

• Continued growth of the tribal ranching operation and buffalo herd

• Possibly, a golf course

Chapter 5
SANTEE INDIAN RESERVATION BASE POPULATION
AND POPULATION PROJECTIONS

Back to top

Base Population

This chapter discusses Santee Indian Reservation population projections and presents information on census data, birth rates, mortality rates, and migration.

The future population of the Santee Reservation depends, in large part, on the level and characteristics of the current population, as well as migration patterns. The 2000 census estimated the population of the Santee Reservation at 878 people. A common criticism of census estimates is that they undercount the true population, especially in rural areas and on Indian Reservations. Undercounting on Indian Reservations is particularly problematic because some households may not be willing to disclose the number of people living in a home out of fear that assistance from various programs may be threatened. As a result, it is possible that the population of the Santee Reservation was underestimated in the 2000 census because the true number of people living in individual households is underestimated.

According to Bureau of the Census estimates, the 1990 census underestimated the number of
American Indians in Nebraska by 4.9 percent and the white population by 0.4 percent. The Bureau of the Census made an effort to reduce the population undercount for the 2000 census to improve the accuracy of the population estimates. Statistics are not yet available to determine the undercount for various races in various parts of the country for the 2000 census. However, the U.S. Census Monitoring Board has indicated that some undercounting occurred in the 2000 census. The estimated average household size on the Reservation (from the 2000 census) was 2.9 people.

The Santee Tribe has estimated that about 750 of the nearly 2,800 tribal members reside on the Reservation. By contrast, the 2000 census estimated a total of 563 American Indians lived on the Santee Reservation. If it is assumed that the 2000 census underestimated the number of people per household but was accurate in estimating the total number of households, this would result in an estimated 3.9 people per household. This is a number that better correlates with the number that would be expected by the tribal housing authority. Therefore, for the purposes of this analysis, the 2000 base population of the Reservation was estimated to be 1,065 people.

Population Projections

Population projections can be completed using trend analysis or demographic modeling. Trend analysis is based on historical changes in population and the assumption that past age, birth rate,
fertility, mortality, and migration trends will continue into the future. Trend estimates can be modified qualitatively to account for changes in variables that may be expected in the future.
Demographic modeling involves the estimation of relationships between demographic characteristics and population levels that can be used to project future population. These characteristics include mortality, birth rates, and net migration. The demographic modeling technique is used to project the future population of the Santee Indian Reservation in this analysis.

The methodology and assumptions used to project the future population are described below. The population projections for the Santee Reservation were generated using the cohort component method. A cohort represents a group of individuals who have a specific factor (such as age) in common. For example, all males age 19 to 25 represent a cohort. The cohort component method involves separating the population under consideration into cohorts, looking at the demographic components of each cohort, and projecting the population of each cohort for successive time periods into the future.

The first step in implementing the cohort component method is to apply specific age-sex survival rates to each group and carry that population forward to the next age group. Next, the net number of migrants is added to the population carried forward in the first step to derive the projected population. Projecting the population of the less than 1-year-old age group is complicated by the fact that this future group does not currently exist. As a result, the future 0 to 1-year-old age cohort is projected by applying the age-specific birth rates to the 15- to 44-year- old female population of childbearing age. The projected births are then multiplied by the appropriate survival and net migration rates.

The components of a demographic modeling analysis include birth rates and mortality.

Birth Rates

Birth rates are used in demographic models to project births within specific age groups. The birth rate for an age group, combined with the population of females within that age group, can be used to estimate births. Birth rates for the female population of child-bearing age are available by age group and race from the Department of Health and Human Services.

Birth rates are also available by State. Projections of future birth rate are available by race and age group for the United States from the U.S. Bureau of the Census. The projections of future birth rates can be combined with current birth rates to project future birth rates in the study area. The birth rates used to project future population on the Reservation are presented in tables 5-1 and 5-2. Birth rates specific to the Native American and non-Native American populations were used to improve the accuracy of the estimates.

Table 5-1. Native American birth rates used to project population

Table 5-1. Native American birth rates used to project population
Age	2000	2005	2010	2015	2020	2025	2030	2035	2040	2045	2050
(years) (births per 1,000 women)
10-14	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.5	1.5	1.6	1.6	1.6
15-17	48.3	48.0	48.6	48.6	48.3	47.6	47.3	47.3	47.6	47.6	47.6
18-19	138.0	137.0	138.9	138.9	138.0	136.0	135.1	135.1	136.0	136.0	136.0
20-24	165.4	164.3	166.6	166.6	165.4	163.1	162.0	161.9	163.1	163.1	163.1
25-29	130.4	129.5	131.3	131.3	130.4	128.6	127.7	127.7	128.6